Poultry Diseases and Disorders
There are articles on specific poultry problems around the site but this section allows you to browse all of the poultry diseases and disorders you are likely to encounter in one place and provides links to the other articles around the site.
Examine your bird, then check their symptoms here to get an ideas of what could be wrong with them. Please remember this advice should not replace the advice of a qualified vet - Whilst we have experience in keeping chickens, waterfowl and a few other types of poultry, we are not vets!
Worth a mention are "Diseases of Free Range Poultry" and "The Chicken Health Handbook", both very good books covering just about all diseases and disorders in a non technical way. Victoria Roberts' book in particular is an excellent read with information aimed at UK enthusiasts.
- Respiratory
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 Respiratory System Problems.
Symptoms of typical poultry respiritory problems include: Runny / watery eyes, swollen sinusses, wheezing, sneezing, gurgling / rattling, and difficulty breathing.
Open the sliders below for more information about the respiritory system or a particular respiritory disease or disorder:
Gapeworm
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 Gapeworms (Syngamus trachea) are included under 'respiratory system' since the adult worms reside in the trachea (or windpipe) and often produce a gurgling or 'tracheal rattle' that can be confused with respiritory problems. Gapeworm is common in pheasants but also affects chickens, guinea fowl and turkeys. Gapeworms can cause considerable losses in pheasants and turkeys. Gasping for breath or 'gaping' as it is known is the biggest sign of gape worm. Shaking of the head and neck stretching are also common. When birds are held, gurgling can often be heard. If a heavy infestation occurs, death by suffocation will occur. Fully grown gape worms are 'Y' shaped and vary in size between 1 and 2cm long.  They are blood red in colour (as can be seen in the second photo during a post mortem).
Photos courtesy of Janssen Animal Health
Other Names: Gapes, Red worms, Forked worms, Y worms.
Symptoms: Gasping (gaping), yawning, gurgling / respiritory distress, head shaking, loss of appitite, and eventually coughing and choking
Area affected: Trachea (windpipe), bronchi and lungs.
Causes: Environment
Transmission: Via intermediate hosts such as earthworms or snails and directly by birds picking up eggs that have been coughed up, or passed out into faeces,
Diagnosis: Laboratory identification of eggs in faeces, gapeworms found in trachea by postmortem, some / all of the symptoms above.
Prevention: A good worming strategy, rotating grazing areas, avoiding contact with ground where wild pheasants have been.
Treatment: Flubenvet 1% 60g is licensed for treating gapeworm. For heavy infestations (high epg or 'eggs per gram of faeces' determined by laboratory worm count) usually on heavily used ground or with high stocking density, it is usually necessary to worm again a little before the prepatent period (the time it takes from being laid as a worm egg to being a mature worm of egg laying age) to reduce high infection levels. Rotating the pasture really helps to break this cycle.
Prepatent Period: 18 to 20 days
Risk to Human Health: None known.
Links to Articles:
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Mycoplasma Gallisepticum
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Most backyard flocks these days are carrying Mycoplasma. There are many different kinds of Mycoplasma but Mycoplasma Gallisepticum is the most common. It causes respiratory disease and can weaken the birds immune system sufficiently for them to pick up any disease that they come into contact with. Small bubbles in the corners of eyes and swollen sinuses are is usually the first sign of Mycoplasma. Once birds have been infected, they become carriers and remain infectious for life. Some birds seem to have a good resistance to M.G. and out of an infected flock, a few may die, others may become ill and recover and some may not show any symptoms at all. The first time they are ill seems to be the worst and subsequent outbreaks seem to be milder.
Bringing new, perfectly healthy younger birds into an established flock of carriers is typically a problem. New birds can be Myco free but with the stress of being moved and not having much resistance to M.G. will become sick after a week or two of arriving and the established flock appears to be healthy.
Other Names: M.G, Chronic Respiratory Disease, CRD, Roup (in older poultry books), Stress Disease, Infectious Sinusitis (in Turkeys)
Symptoms: In growers: Loss of appetite, slow growth, In Chickens & Turkeys: Ruffled feathers, fluid in eyes (small bubbles in the corners of eyes), coughing, sneezing, 'darth vader' breathing, gurgling / rattling, swollen face, strained crow in cockerels, drop in laying in hens, sometimes loss of appetite, sweet smelling breath.
Area affected: Respiratory system (mainly) but can effect the Kidneys.
Causes: Mycoplasma Gallisepticum Bacteria.
Transmission: Infection from other carrier birds (from their respiritory dischages), including wild birds. Through hatching eggs. From infected dust / bedding material. Chicken and Turkeys can cross infect one another, other species have their own type of Mycoplasma that cannot cross infect . Mycoplasma is highly contagious and can be carried in on shoes, clothing and feeders / drinkers etc. Mycoplasma can survive for several hours on these things.
Diagnosis: Contact with wild birds or other carriers (poultry shows), bringing new birds in that are carriers, stress factors (change of food, house, worming, over crowding, new birds in the flock, weather - snow covering the ground for example, shortage of food or water, ammonia from soiled bedding). Breathing difficulty, laboratory identification of bacteria in post mortem, identification by blood test.
Prevention: Good biosecurity, minimise stress, vaccination is possible but is done via an inhaled mist and equipment to administer is expensive, keep birds immune systems strong with the right diet. Fresh crushed garlic in food or water is great for the immune system and Apple Cider Vinegar. After an infection, disinfect housing and leave for 2 weeks. Mycoplasmas cannot survive for long in the environment.
Treatment: Antibiotics from your vet: Tylan, Baytril, or Gallimycin. Tylan 200 injected into the breast muscle is usually the most effective. Treatment needs to be early on for a greater chance of recovery.
Risk to Human Health: None known.
Links to Articles:
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Infectious Bronchitis
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Infectious bronchitis (I.B) is the most contagious poultry disease. It has very similar symptoms to mycoplasma. The main difference is the number of birds it affects. Mycoplasma tends to affect a few birds in the flock but IB spreads within a few days to the whole flock. I.B. causes respiratory disease and kidney damage in growers and oviduct infection in adult hens which can cause wrinkled egg shells as well as a reduction in egg laying. It can also affect the ability of the bird to produce thick albumen (white). Commercial flocks vaccinate against Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis at the same time. Survivors of IB are immune but will always be carriers.
Species Affected: All but especially turkeys and chickens.
Other Names: I.B, avian infectious bronchitis
Symptoms: . In growers: Gasping, coughing and wheezing / chirping. After a couple of weeks, sometimes nervous system problems - twisted neck, droopy wings, dragging legs. In adults: Wheezing, green droppings, soft shelled eggs or drop in egg production and later on, nervous system symptoms twisted neck, droopy wings, dragging legs, death. Sometimes mortality rate can be very high, especially during colder weather.
Causes: Coronovirus.
Transmission: By inhaling the virus via respiratory discharges from carriers or ingesting it via excretions e.g contaminated feed.
Diagnosis: Symptoms above and post mortem findings.
Prevention: Vaccination (Intervet) if in a high risk area, good biosecurity.
Treatment: Keep sick birds warm and watch for secondary infections. Vitamin suppliments in the water.
Risk to Human Health: None known.
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Newcastle Disease
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Newcastle disease is fairly common around the world but the UK doesn't have many outbreaks. The symptoms can be quite varied. Commercial flocks are vaccinated against Newcastle disease at the same time as they are vaccinated for infective bronchitis and all racing pigeons leaving the UK (and returning on their own!) are vaccinated against it. Importing birds from outside the EU isThe virus is quite tough, being able to survive in dead birds for many weeks afterwards. This is a notifiable disease in the UK.
Species Affected: All but especially turkeys and chickens.
Other Names: Avian Distemper, Paramyxovirus, Fowl Pest
Symptoms: Can be quite varied. In growers: Gasping, coughing and wheezing / chirping. After a couple of weeks, sometimes nervous system problems - twisted neck, droopy wings, dragging legs. In adults: Wheezing, green droppings, soft shelled eggs or drop in egg production and later on, nervous system symptoms twisted neck, droopy wings, dragging legs.
Causes: Paramyxovirus.
Transmission: By inhaling the virus via respiratory discharges from carriers or ingesting it via excretions e.g contaminated feed.
Diagnosis: Symptoms above and post mortem findings.
Prevention: Vaccination (Intervet) if in a high risk area, good biosecurity.
Treatment: Isolate infected birds in a warm location, provide them with a good diet and a vitamin suppliment in their water.
Risk to Human Health: Infection to the eyes / conjunctivits with flu like symptoms. Usually temporary and should clear after a couple of weeks.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- Digestive
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Digestive System Problems
Symptoms of typical digestive system problems include: Loss of appitite, a swollen crop, bad or sweet smelling breath, diarrhea, or messy bottoms.
Open the sliders below for more information about the digestive system or a particular digestive disease or disorder:
The Digestive System of a Chicken
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The digestive system of a chicken mechanically and chemically breaks down food and allows nutrients to be absorbed ready for use in the body. It is important to understand how the digestive system works in order to get a better idea of digestive system problems and to know what is normal (like a bulging crop or the caecal discharge). The main problems that we encounter as hobby poultry keepers in the digestive system are worms and crop problems such as impacted crop / sour crop.
The basic function of the digestive system is described here but a link at the bottom of this page takes you to more detailed information and a larger picture.
- The beak mositens food with Saliva. Food is not chewed.
- The oesophagus takes the food down to the crop to be stored. After a chicken has eaten, the crop will feel full and bulge.
- Food from the crop slowly passes down to the proventriculus.
- The proventriculus mixes the food with acids and digestive enzymes.
- Food is then passed through to the gizzard where insoluble (flint) grit has accumulated.
- Food is ground down by strong muscular action in the gizzard.
- From the gizzard, food is passed through to the small intestine and is reduced further with enzymes from the pancreas.
- Bile produced by the liver and stored in the gall blader helps to break down fat.
- The intestines digest the food, taking nutrients from it.
- Water and the remaining undigested food is absorbed in the large intestine.
- The caeca are a pair of tubes that allow fermentation of undigested food to take place. This is emptied every 24 hours or so and is a light brown (mustard colour) froth. This can often be confused as diarrhea by the novice.
- The closca / vent passes a combination of faeces and urine, together with eggs from the oviduct.
This information is explained more in The Digestive System of a Chicken.
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Impacted Crop
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An Impacted crop is caused by a blockage in the crop. This can be caused by tough stems of woody grass that cannot pass from the crop down into the proventriculus. The crop feels full and feels like dough. Check first thing in the morning before the bird has had a chance to eat to see if the crop has emptied overnight.
Species Affected: Mainly Chickens
Other Names: Blocked crop, pendulous crop (when the size causes the crop to hang / swing).
Symptoms: Crop does not empty (it should empty overnight), feels like dough.
Area affected: Crop.
Causes: Usually tough strands of long grass but can be anything that's blocking the crop.
Transmission: Not passed from bird to bird but is related to the environment in which the bird is kept.
Diagnosis: Symptoms above.
Prevention: Keep grass in grazing areas cut short.
Treatment: If caught early, the contents of the crop need to be softened with liquid Paraffin, warm water or a couple of teaspoons of Olive Oil. Massage gently for a few minutes, then, turn the bird upside down to empty the crop out through the beak. Turn the bird the right way up to allow it to breathe every 8 to 10 seconds. This is a two person job.In more serious cases, veterinary intervention is required. A vet will usually cut the crop open, empty the contents and stitch the bird back up afterwards.
Risk to Human Health: None.
Links to Articles:
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Coccidiosis
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Coccidiosis is a disease caused by the coccidial protozoan organism, an internal parasite called Eimeria. These live inside the cells that line the birds intestine. As they reproduce, they cause bleeding and swelling in the intestines. Birds loose a lot of liquid through diarrhoea and cannot absorb nutrients from their food and will soon die if left untreated. Coccidiosis normally only infects young birds. Older birds will build up an immunity over time. There are a number of different species of Coccidiosis parasite, some cause a higher mortality rate than others. There are five that are can cause death in Chickens, 3 in Ducks, 3 in Geese, 5 in Turkeys, 3 in Pheasants.
Species Affected: Chickens, Turkeys (mainly Poults), Ducks, Geese (mainly Goslings), Pheasants. Each Eimeria species is specific to its host (so chickens can't infect Turkeys for example).
Other Names: Cocci
Symptoms: Bloody Diarrhoea, ranging from clotted blood to slightly tinged faeces and mucus. Poor feed conversion, loss of weight, death.
Area affected: Intestines.
Causes: Coccidial protozoan organism, an internal parasite called Eimeria.
Transmission: Coccidia eggs (called oocysts) eaten by a bird hatches inside the intestine and multiplies (within 7 days) laying thousands more eggs. Once these eggs pass out via the infected faeces, they require 2 days to mature (ideallly around 25 to 30°C in moist conditions) before they are ready to infect another bird.
Diagnosis: Symptoms above.
Prevention: Keeping chicks and growers clean and out of damp litter so they cannot peck at droppings is the most important preventative measure. Good biosecurity: keeping age groups separate, keeping younger birds off ground that has been used by older birds, cleaning footware if visiting younger birds after older birds. Vaccination at day old where practical. The only DEFRA approved disinfectant that kills the 'Oocysts' (Coccidia Eggs) is "BI-OO-CYST" (see Amazon window below).
Treatment: If there is a consistent problem, there is a vaccination available for chickens (called Paracox). This can be administered in water, it contains all 7 species of coccidia that chickens can get. It is normally only available in vials suitable to treat 1000 birds that has a shelf life of 4 weeks. It should be used on day old chicks via drinking water or pipette / dropper. Chick crumbs can contain anti-coccidial drugs (sometimes called ACS) although recently, many feed manufacturers have been reducing the amount of ACS they put in their feeds and there is growing concern that some of these drugs are not as effective as they used to be.
For birds that are suffering with Coccidiosis, Harkers Coxoid administered in water has proven to be very effective. This is not yet licensed for poultry (it is used on pigeons) although many vets will suggest its use for poultry with a withdrawal period of 28 days for eggs and meat. For it to be effective, it is important to do this quickly at the first signs of coccidiosis infection.
Risk to Human Health: None.
Links to Articles:
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Gapeworm
See 'Respiratory Problems' tab.
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Pullorum
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Other Names: Bacillary White Diarrhea, BWD
Symptoms: In chicks: Loss of appetite, weakness, huddled, hunched up under heat lamp, drowsy, white diarrhea, sometimes a little green, death. In Chickens: increased thurst, green diarrhea, reduced egg production, shriveled up comb.
Area affected: Digestive System
Causes: Salmonella Pullorum bacteria. Destroyed by disinfectants but can survive for years in bedding material.
Transmission: Through eggs from infected birds, from contaminated surfaces or from chick to chick.
Diagnosis: From laboratory testing, symptoms above and the age of the birds.
Prevention: Good biosecurity, control rodents, flies and wild birds. Buy certified Pullorum free stock.
Treatment: Cull since birds that survive will continue to carry the disease. This is a reportable disease in most parts of the World.
Risk to Human Health: High - By eating contaminated meat. Symptoms are a high fever and prostration.
Links to Articles: None.
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Obesity
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Chickens are the most likely candidates to become overweight. Birds that are caged, kept in a small run or are fed the incorrect diet are the most at risk of becoming overweight. Fat hens don't lay eggs, are prone to heat stroke, fatty liver syndrome and can have reproduction problems.
Confined birds:
Lack of exercise and diet come into play. Try to let the bird out for regular exercise. Whilst some breeds need to be kept inside to keep feathers in top condition for showing, a small amount of exercise in a clean grass run when the weather allows will be beneficial to them.
Diet.
A common problem is feeding too much mixed corn / scratch to chickens. Maize (yellow, usually found crushed in the corn) puts fat on birds and turns the skin yellow. This can be useful during cold weather when birds need to keep warm but at other times, mixed corn should only be fed as a treat. A handful of corn per bird thrown over a wide are (called scratch feed in America) for the birds to forage before bedtime is as much as should be fed. Do not feed corn ad lib or mixed with pellets. The main ingredient of mixed corn is wheat which is lower in protein than balanced layers feeds and whilst this is suitable for ducks, is not suitable for chickens.
Feeding scraps is another way to have a dietary imbalance. A bird will not receive sufficient protein from most kitchen scraps and whilst many people will tell you their grandfather fed scraps to his flock for years, this was before well researched balanced feeds were available and the hens of the day weren't producing anything like the number of eggs that some modern hybrids produce today.
If you want to feed scraps, mix it into a wet crumbly 'mash' by mixing it with some layers mash. Limit scraps to 25% of the birds daily feed and if birds become obese then remove scraps altogether. Fresh greens can and should be fed regularly and birds allowed to free range as much as possible. Feed a balanced pellet (or mash) diet, suitable for the type of bird and growth stage of the bird ad-lib.
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Problems caused by quality of drinking water / dehydration
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 This is included in this section since water is so important to the health of all poultry. Water is THE most important nutrient in a birds diet. Half of a birds body is made up of water and eggs are made up of around 65% water. Clean, fresh drinking water is essential for good health.
Common diseases from drinking water:
- Thrush - From fungus contaminated water.
- Algae poisining - Toxins in the water.
- Botulism - Rotting organic matter in water.
- Gout - Lack of water
- Salt poisoning - Lack of water
- Numerous other diseases the bird can pick up when weakend through dehydration or when water is contaminated with droppings.
Quality of drinking water:
- Water should be replaced daily and containers should be kept clean. A stiff hand brush kept next to the tap can be used to scrub containers before refilling but it is a good idea to sterilise containers every couple of weeks.
- Green algae in containers / water is a recipe for disaster. These containers contain "Bacteria soup" and forcing birds to drink from these will lead to birds picking up some form of disease sooner than later.
- In winter, frozen water needs regular defrosting. In warmer temperatures, water needs to be kept cool by placing containers in the shade. Poultry use water to cool down which they cannot do if the water has heated up too much in the sun.
Birds are quite sensitive to the type and quality of water provided. It is common for birds at a show not to drink since the local water supply is different. If you plan taking your birds somewhere like this, always take your own water for them.
Testing drinking water
If you are concerned about the quality of your supply of water, a veterinary lab can test it for you. A test kit can be bought online (in the UK, take a look at the Chickenvet Water sample kit)
Lack of water. Birds can survive for a while without food but they won't last long without water. Birds drink little and often.
- If birds simply do not like the taste of your local water supply, they will not drink enough of it (see testing above).
- Diarrhoea in birds causes them to lose water faster than it can be replaced.
- Frozen water in the winter should be regularly defrosted or placed on a heat mat / inside a house where it won't freeze.
- In warm weather, the amount of water birds drink increases. Since they do not sweat, heat is expelled from the body through respiration and taking on cooler water.
Allow at least 6 litres of water per dozen birds per day, more during hot weather. 13°C is the preferred temperature and birds will drink less at higher / lower temperatures than this.
Dehydration
If a bird becomes dehydrated, egg production suffers and in young birds, their growth is restricted. If a hen is deprived of water for 24 hours, she may be staggering around, sitting hunched or lethargic. Fresh, clean water should be provided immediately. If she will not drink herself, dip the beak into the water. If she will still not drink, a syringe can be used to re-hydrate her orally. Make sure you squirt this down the throat into the crop and not down the trachea (wind pipe) into the air sacs. It will take her up to 3 weeks to fully recover and start laying again. She may go into a moult and egg production may not fully recover.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- Reproductive
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 Reproductive System Problems.
Reproductive system disorders, including egg laying problems. Problems with eggs are covered under the Eggs tab.
Symptoms of reproductive disorders include infertility, hatching problems, laying difficulty or swollen abdomen and prolapse.
Open the sliders below for more information about the reproductive system or a particular reproductive problem:
The Reproductive System of a Chicken
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 A hen's reproductive system consists of two parts: the ovary and the oviduct. The ovary contains thousands of ova (see right) which can develop into the yolk and eventually an egg. A hen therefore has the ova of every egg she can ever lay inside her body.
An ova is placed into a yolk and when it reaches its final size, it breaks away from the ovary. This process is called ovulation. All eggs contain an ova and it is possible to see this in the yolk when you open an egg - it is called the germinal disc. The yolk enters the oviduct where the albumen (white) and the shell are added. Most female animals have two active ovaries and oviducts but hens only have one. The left ovary and oviduct is functional but the right ovary and oviduct are dormant. When a cock mates with a hen, he will deposit semen that will go into the oviduct and as the yolk passes through, the semen connects with the germinal disc (ova) and becomes fertilised.
The ovulation period of a hen is 24 to 26 hours so she will normally lay later every day. Hens in lay will lay an egg each day for about six or seven days. This group of eggs is known as a clutch. A clutch of eggs is followed by one or more days when the hen doesn't produce an egg. In practice, there are many factors that effect laying.
The process of egg laying is triggered by hormones in a hens body. The pituitary gland in her eye produces these hormones when it is stimulated by light. Chickens generally need about 14 - 16 hours of light per day to come into lay and (in the UK) will usually stop laying between November and January.
It is not possible to tell whether an egg is fertile or not until it is incubated when it can be candled and the development can be seen.
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No Eggs or Stopped Laying
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The ovary releases eggs when stimulated by a hormone. This hormone is produced by the pituitary gland inside the eye which in turn is stimulated by light. Chickens need around 16 hours of daylight to lay so during the darker winter months they will usually stop laying. In the U.K. they normally stop from November to February or early March. Young birds just coming into lay in early winter will sometimes lay at a reduced rate over the winter. This is especially true for hybrid chickens that lay larger numbers of eggs in a year. Some show strains of birds will lay far less eggs than the norm for their breed. This is often because of close breeding.
Birds will stop laying when they go through a moult which for most chickens is usually in late summer although they can moult at other times of the year too. Feathers are 80% protein so egg production is stopped so that feathers can be re-grown. Illness or disease will cause a reduction in eggs as will red mite, or heavy infestations of external parasites. The wrong diet - for example, a lack of protein or calcium (oystershell grit) will cause chickens to stop laying although modern poultry feeds usually contain the right balance.
If your hens become stressed, the egg production process can get disrupted for several days. Chickens are creatures of habit and are quite nervous about change. Things we might take as very minor can upset chickens. Changes in feed, housing, run, newcomers to the flock and even sudden weather changes can all upset chickens.
Articles: Chickens Stopped Laying
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Prolapsed Oviduct
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A prolapsed oviduct is when the lower part of a hens oviduct turns inside out and is left hanging outside of her vent. This condition is most common in young hens that have started laying too soon but can be inherited in some pure breeds, especially from exhibition lines. Prolapse is caused by the tissue that normally holds the oviduct in place being damaged. Other birds in the flock will often peck at the prolapse since hens are attracted to the red flesh. This will quickly kill the hen and a hen with a prolapse must be isolated quickly for this reason. The treatment for a small prolapse is to gently push the prolapse back in. To do this, hold the hen with her head down and using a little warmed liquid paraffin or petroleum jelly (Vasaline) gently reinsert the oviduct. Larger prolapses usually require veterinary treatment with antibiotics such as Tylan a prescription only medication to stop secondary infection. Generally speaking, hens that have had a serious prolapse will often prolapse again when they lay their next egg, or, if the oviduct is damaged, will not lay again.
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Tumors
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Tumors are quite common in an older hens reproductive organs. This is an area that hasn't undergone a great deal of research since most studies are done for commercial reasons and only young hens are used in commercial production. Only a few causes of tumors are known such as Marek's Disease and Lymphoid Leukosis. Reduced egg production from hens with a tumor is common.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- Eggs
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 Egg Problems.
For egg laying problems, see Reproductive System. Typical egg problems are soft or missing egg shells, wrinkled or misshaped eggs, watery whites, double or multiple yolks and worms or blood spots inside eggs.
Open the sliders below for more information about egg problems:
Mini Eggs
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Mini eggs are about quarter of the normal size. They usually don't have a yolk inside, just the ‘white' or albumen and is caused by a small foreign object entering the oviduct and triggering the normal formation of an egg. Normally only one mini egg is laid and it is nothing to worry about.
Photo Courtesy of Melanie Catley
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Double or multi-yolk eggs
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 Double or multi yolk eggs whilst very enjoyable are actually a fault. They are common in young, laying hens, especially from hens that are from highly productive strains. A double yolk egg is formed when two ovulations take place almost at the same time and go down the oviduct together and both get encased in shell.
Articles: Double Yolk Eggs
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Soft, Thin or Missing Egg Shells
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Soft or missing egg shells are quite common in older older birds, especially high production hybrids and especially as they come out of lay for the season.
In younger hens, sometimes an egg stays in the shell gland for too long (see calcium coated shells) and the egg that follows it doesn't spend long enough. In these circumstances, the two eggs are laid closely together on the same day.
Thin egg shells can occur on hot days when the temperature rises. This is associated with a lower food intake and shell thickness will return to normal when the temperature drops and the food intake returns to normal.
Links to Articles:
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Watery Whites
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As birds get older, the quality of the egg they lay will deteriorate. Older birds will lay eggs that have more watery whites. Some diseases such as infectious bronchitis can affect the ability of the bird to produce thick albumen (white).
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Blood Spots in Eggs
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Blood spots are usually found in or just next to the yolk. A tiny blood vessel in the ovary gets broken which leaves a little spot of blood next to the yolk as it passes through.
Highly active hens around the time of ovulation can increase the chances of blood spots in eggs. Rutin is a substance found in grass which helps to stop bleeding, so you may find hens that produce eggs with blood spots in them improve if they have a good supply of fresh grass or free range grazing. Commercially, eggs go to packing stations where they are candled before being packed and sold. Eggs with blood spots are removed and used in processed food. You can still eat eggs with blood spots, it's just not very appealing to most people. Blood spots seem to be more common in chickens than other poultry.
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Meat Spots in Eggs
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 Meat spots in eggs are usually found in the albumen (white) rather than near the yolk like blood spots. They are brown in colour and are made up of small pieces of body tissue, from the lining of the oviduct.
Meat spots appear more in older hens or hens with poor health but also vary according to the breed and the strain of the bird. They are more common in chickens than other poultry.
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Calcium Coated Shells
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Sometimes an egg gets coated in calcium. It looks very white and powdery on the surface of the shell. Sometimes the egg can look a pinkish colour. This is usually caused by the egg staying in the shell gland for too long. Young hens that are stressed in some way can be susceptible to this when they are ready to lay because they will hold on to the egg for too long.
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Wrinkled Egg Shells
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 If the white is watery, it is harder for a shell to be built correctly around it. Some diseases such as infectious bronchitis can affect the ability of the bird to produce thick albumen (white) and a wrinkled shell can be the sign that the bird has had a viral disease such as infectious bronchitis.
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Bacterial Contamination
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Bacteria exist on the surface of all eggs. Egg shells are porous, however there is a protective layer deposited around the shell of an egg when laid (which is why eggs can look wet when they are ‘just laid') to stop bacteria from entering the egg through the pores. This is the reason it is best not to wash eggs before storing them. During incubation or warm weather, bacteria multiply and can sometimes get through the shell and multiply within the egg. If you candle the egg, it will often have dark, irregular patches.
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Egg Eating
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Poor nutrition, badly designed nest boxes, a weak egg shell or just a clumsy hen treading on eggs can lead to a chicken eating an egg. Eggs are of course very nutritious and other hens will soon pick up the habit. Egg eating can be quite difficult to cure once it becomes established so it is best to act quickly if you can.
To cure an egg eating habit:
- Make sure hens are laying in nest boxes (if they are not, see eggs laid on floor below).
- Keep nest boxes darkened (a piece of sacking hanging over 2/3 of the entrance works well)
- Ensure eggs are collected regularly – most eggs will be laid in the morning.
- Try blowing an egg and filling it with mustard or a curry powder mixture and leaving it where the eggs are being eaten.
- Try scattering a number of ping pong balls around the nest and floor.
- If there is one culprit, remove her for a while whilst she is re-trained.
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Eggs Laid on Floor
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Whilst strictly not a disorder, eggs laid on the floor can soon lead to problems as they become soiled. Egg eating is also more common from eggs that are laid on the floor and needs to be avoided.
To encourage chickens to lay in nest boxes:
- Ensure the nest boxes are designed correctly. Consider the size but also the height of the box.
- Raising a nest box slightly can make a distinction between that and the floor.
- Nest boxes should ideally be darkened and a quiet, private place for the birds to lay. Hanging an old piece of sacking over the entrance to a nest box so that it covers approximately two thirds of the entrance can help, even turning a chicken house around so that the nest boxes are North facing, out of the direct sun light can help.
- Provide soft bedding material such as straw and ensure there are no parasites such as Red Mites.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- Skeletal & Muscular
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 Skeletal and Muscular Problems.
Lameness, splayed legs, legs or wings pointing in odd directions, inflamation of joints are all typical symptoms of skeletal and muscular disorders. Most skeletal and muscular problems are caused by the incorrect diet which is a good starting point.
Open the sliders below for more information about the skeletal or muscular system or a particular disease or disorder:
Lameness
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Lameness can be caused by a number of different things. Sprains, infections caused by cuts or splinters in the foot, bumblefoot, dislocation of the hip, muscle damage, pinched nerves and dietary deficiencies. Less common are hereditary problems. Fast growing meat chickens suffer from leg problems due to their large size / weight and rate of growth. Tenosynovitis or tendon inflamation can be more common and painful for older birds. Kidney disease causes lameness or loss of the legs because the nerve that goes to their legs passes through the kidneys. In old birds, lameness can be caused by arthritis. Mycoplasma Synoviae (see tab below) which can cause the hocks to become infected causes lameness and Marek's disease can cause birds to lose their legs.
In Waterfowl:
Waterfowl can go lame or off their legs when they have worms. If an adult duck goes lame, the first thing to check is that they have been wormed recently. Waterfowl can also go lame due to a dietary deficiency of niacin, biotin / Vitamin B which is uncommon if feed is fresh / in date but a more common problem is if there is an imbalance of calcium to phosphorus in the diet. Layers feeds contain a lot of calcium that is needed by (you've guessed it!) laying birds to form egg shells. Ensure young / growing waterfowl (over 5 weeks) are fed the correct diet of waterfowl growers pellets and not layers pellets. Waterfowl should also have access to wheat fed under water. A bowl or shallow bucket is ideal for ducks and a normal bucket for geese. This also encourages them to dip their heads under water to keep their eyes clean. Non laying adults should always have access to wheat ad-lib. Layers pellets should be offered but for drakes / non layers wheat will make up most of the diet. Waterfowl should have easy access to water and not have to struggle to get in and out of troughs. If you do use troughs, think about burying them half way into the ground to help them with access and provide a ramp on one side and ramp to get out again.
Duckling go off their legs if chick crumbs or growers pellets are fed to them that contain anti-coccidiostats (ACS), a drug designed to prevent coccidiosis in young chickens. Ducklings eat more than chicks and will effectively be having an overdose of the drug.
Symptoms: Can be a sudden or gradual limp. Sprains usually cause swelling as can infection. Dietary deficiency usually causes trembling legs that suddenly give way whilst standing or after a short run. Also legs can be bent or twisted at the hock joint.
Treatment: Examine the feet legs for signs of injury. Never catch or pick birds up by the legs, it is very easy to dislocate the leg. In birds that are otherwise healthy, they can be kept in confinement. Keep birds in a small clean pen or cage (A large dog crate is usefull for this) in a quiet environment where they will not be startled. Feed them the correct diet and ensure they can reach it easily. Fresh water is essential, a vitamin drink can be added to this.
For waterfowl, if possible, provide a small clean pen, again with feed and water in easy reach but also clean swimming water with easy access - this can really help the legs to recover. A small tub buried in the ground with a ramp to get out can work well.
If dietary difficiency is the problem, use a vitamin suppliment in the feed / water immediately. Feed ducklings growers pellets (Smallholder feeds in the UK make waterfowl pellets), not layers pellets. The phosphorus:calcium ratio should be in the range of 1:1 to 1.0:1.5.
Links to Articles:
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Mycoplasma Synoviae
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Mycoplasma Synoviae bacteria often infect birds when their immune systems are low, such as when they have Infective Bronchitus (a cold) and seems to strike more during cold, damp weather. Birds that die usually die because of a secondary infection that takes hold whilst the bird is weak.
Other Names: M.S, Infectious Synovitis, Enlarged Hock Disease
Symptoms: Slow growth (for young birds), pale comb, lameness and followed by ruffled feathers, greenish droppings with excess white urates, blue comb, sometimes swollen hocks and feet that are hot to touch.
Area affected: Joints, especially the hocks.
Causes: Mycoplasma Synoviae Bacteria.
Transmission: Infection from other carrier birds (from their respiritory dischages), including wild birds. Through hatching eggs. From infected dust / bedding material. Chicken and Turkeys can cross infect one another, other species have their own type of Mycoplasma that cannot cross infect. Mycoplasma is highly contagious and can be carried in on shoes, clothing and feeders / drinkers etc. Mycoplasma can survive for several hours on these things.
Diagnosis: Contact with wild birds or other carriers (poultry shows), bringing new birds in that are carriers, stress factors (change of food, house, worming, over crowding, illness, new birds in the flock, weather - snow covering the ground for example, shortage of food or water, ammonia from soiled bedding). Laboratory identification of Mycoplasmas Synoviae bacteria in post mortem.
Prevention: Good biosecurity, minimise stress, keep litter dry, vaccination is possible but is done via an inhaled mist and equipment to administer is expensive, keep birds immune systems strong with the right diet. Fresh crushed garlic in food or water is great for the immune system and Apple Cider Vinegar. After an infection, disinfect housing and leave for 2 weeks. Mycoplasmas cannot survive for long in the environment.
Treatment: Antibiotics: Tylan, Baytril, or Gallimycin. Tylan 200 injected into the breast muscle is usually the most effective. Treatment needs to be early on for a greater chance of recovery.
Risk to Human Health: None known.
Links to Articles: None.
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Crooked Toes
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 There are 4 known causes of crooked toes. Chicks get crooked toes at an early age, usually in their first couple of weeks. They will be walking on the sides of their toes. Note, this is different to Curled toes where the toes curl under and the they will be walking on the tops of their toes / nails. If you can identify the cause of crooked toes in your chicks, then you may still be able to use them for breeding. If it is hereditary then it is not advisable to breed from them because you will be introducing the fault to future generations.
Species affected: Chickens - from week old chicks upwards.
Other Names: Bent toes
Symptoms: A chick with crooked toes will walk on the sides of its feet.
Area affected: Toes
Causes: Either: a) Genetic / hereditary. b) Floor of the brooder is too cold. c) Wire floors used for rearing. d) Incorrect incubation - temperature incorrect or humidity too low .
Transmission: Genetic, applies to specific breeds and strains.
Diagnosis: Toes curle to the left or right and the the bird walks on the sides of the toes.
Prevention: a) Selection of breeding stock if genetic. b) Keep the brooder floor at the correct temperature. c) Don't use wire floors for rearing. d) Ensure incubation temperature and humidity is correct.
Treatment: Correct causes above for future breeding. No treatment of this condition known.
Risk to Human Health: None.
Links to Articles:
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Curled Toes
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Curled Toe Paralysis is when the toes are curled and the chick walks on the tops of his curled toes, rather than the sides of the toes as with crooked toes. It is painful for the chicks and they will normally die after a few weeks. Incorrect diet of breeding stock or out of date chick crumbs containing insufficient Riboflavin are the most common causes.
Species affected: Chickens - from week old chicks upwards.
Other Names: Curly toes
Symptoms: A chick with curled toes will walk on the tops of the toes and nail.
Area affected: Toes
Causes: a) Incorrect diet for breeders. b) Deficiency in Riboflavin in chicks feed.
Transmission: Hereditary and / or dietary.
Diagnosis: Toes curled.
Prevention: a) Diet of breeding stock if hereditary. b) Incorrect diet / lack of Riboflavin.
Treatment: When curled toes first appear, using a multivitamin drink that contains Riboflavin. If this is not caught immediately, permanent damage is done.
Risk to Human Health: None.
Links to Articles:
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Slipped Tendon
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 A slipped tendon is most common in fast growing hybrid meat chicks although it can affect pure breeds from time to time. Using out of date chick crumbs is the most common cause since the vitamin b content is low in out of date food. As can be seen in the photo, the leg is held out and twisted.
In severe cases, the chick will not be able to eat or drink and is better off being dispatched.
Species affected: Usually fast growing hybrid chicks
Other Names: Perosis
Symptoms: . In chicks and young growers: Week old chicks and growers get swollen hock joint and will usually hop but sometimes one or both legs twist to the side.
Causes: Lack of manganese or vitamin B and genetics.
Transmission: Nutritional.
Diagnosis: Symptoms above, post mortem, analysis of feed.
Prevention: Use fresh chick crumbs (in date). Vitamin suppliments in the water, genetic selection, avoid over crowding.
Treatment: Vitamin B and manganese suppliment to reduce the damage (will not reverse the problem).
Risk to Human Health: None known.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- Cardiovascular & Organs
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Cardiovascular and Major Organ Problems.
Open the sliders below for more information about the Cardiovascular system or a particular disease or disorder:
Acute Heart Failure
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Accute heart failure is commonly called a Heart Attack.
Species affected: Chickens, more common in the larger breeds.
Other Names: Accute Death Syndrome, Sudden Death Syndrome, Heart Attack.
Symptoms: Dead for no apparent reason, with no previous ill health. More common in large fowl cockerels or broiler type birds that are gaining weight too quickly, they suddenly drop dead. Neck is usually stretched out, bird is often found on its back. During the heart attack, legs usually kick, rolls over wings stretched, gasping and eyelids close and the bird is dead within a minute or two.
Area affected: Heart
Causes: Unknown - Could be the heart cannot take the rapid weight gain in fast growing broilers.
Transmission: Genetic, applies to specific breeds and strains.
Diagnosis: Post Mortem can show heart attack or the symptoms above if you see it happen.
Prevention: Grow fast growing hybrids slower, choose a slower growing hybrid, in large show strains of birds, don't select for and therefore increase size too much.
Treatment: None.
Risk to Human Health: None.
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit your Vet!
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- External
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 External Problems - feathers, beak, skin, eyes, comb, and nails.
This section covers external problems like feather loss, overgrown beak or nails and comb problems.
Open the sliders below for more information about the external problems or disorders:
Cuts and Wounds
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Small scratches and abrasions usually heal naturally. Severe open wounds require clinical care and you should always seek the help of a veterinarian, however some smaller open wounds can be taken care of immediately without putting the bird through unneccessary stress of going to the vets.The information on stitching is provided since we have heard from smallholders and very experienced poultry keepers who have stitched wounds themselves but again, this is really for a vet to take care of. A bird will stand a much better chance if a vet treats the wound and administers antibiotics if necessary.
Open Wounds that do not require stitches:
- Hold a clean piece of lintless cloth or gauze over the wound.
- Trim feathers away from the edge of the wound.
- Wash the wound with warm mild soapy water. This can be un-perfumed hand soap. Rinse well with clean warm water.
- Trim away any loose bits of skin that will not heal.
- Apply antibacterial ointment daily to help keep the wound free from bacteria or, if the wound requires stitching, read on.
Open Wounds that require stitches:
If an open wound is 'gaping', is deep, or has had large patches of skin removed, stitches are usually required and you should really seek the help of a veterinarian!
Butterfly stitches that 'stick' across the wound can sometimes work on smaller wounds (like a wound caused by spur damage). Suture needles and silk thread are requiredfor stiching although a sterilised sewing needle and white thread can be used in an emergency for surface stitching. Following on from the trimming away loose bits of skin as described above:
- Stitches should go through the skin but no deeper than 1mm.
- They should be sown 3mm apart and pulled taught.
- The skin should be pulled together but not so tight that the skin puckers.
- Stitches should be cut and pulled out in 4 to 5 days.
- An antibacterial oinment can be applied daily over the surface of the wound to keep it free from bacteria.
If the bird has several small wounds or the wound is severe, an oral antibiotic such as Tylan or Baytril can be useful. These are prescription only medications (in the UK) so you would need to visit your vet to get this.
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Red Mite
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 Red mite is the most common mite to be found in warmer climates. It is a problem in the UK from May to October, during the winter months they are inactive. Red mites live in the cracks and crevaces of the chicken house and start off grey in colour. At night time they crawl onto the birds to feed and then turn dark red (full if blood). The life cycle is only 7 days long and a female mite will lay up to 120'000 eggs in the right conditions. Because of this rapid multiplication rate, red mites are notoriously difficult to get rid of and most poultry keepers only manage to keep on top of their numbers rather than get rid of them all together. Mites are about 1mm in size and can be seen, there is usually a grey substance around them that looks a little like minute cigrette ash. Red mite can survive without a feed for 6 months.
Species Affected: Mainly chickens but other poultry including ducks can be affected, especially if housed with chickens.
Other Names: Dermanyssus Gallinae, Chicken Mite, Roost Mite
Symptoms: Anaemia, chickens stopping laying, chickens not wanting to go to roost, damaged plumage, eventually death.
Area affected: Whole body.
Causes: Red mites crawling onto birds at night, biting the birds and drinking their blood.
Transmission: A few mites can stay on a bird during the day, and pass from house to house, clothing and wild birds can also carry them around. New stock can bring them in as can 2nd hand houses and equipment.
Diagnosis: When birds are roosting at night, wipe a white tissue along the underside of the perches. Look for red stains on the tissue for the presence of red mite. Look for specs crawling on the perches with a torch. Look in cracks and crevaces for a grey dust and presense of mites.
Prevention: Regular inspection and preventative treatment of the chicken house with a red mite product. Concentrate on where the mites are living, cracks and crevaces and perches / perch ends.
Treatment: Most popular and organic / safe are Poultry Shield, Barrier Red Mite Powder, Diatomaceous Earth and Harkers Durimitex although there are many other products available.
Risk to Human Health: Irritation - red mites will crawl on you and make you itch. After treating a house, wash clothing in the washing machine and shower. If they do get into your house, the best way to get rid of them is by using a flea spray (such as Ardap) designed to be used around the home.
 Links to Articles:
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Scaly Leg Mite
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Scaly Leg Mite causes scaly, raised encrusted scales on the legs. The scales often look like they are protruding outwards and parts of the scales will come off, making the legs look unsightly.
Species Affected: All Poultry
Other Names: Knemidocoptes mutans
Symptoms: Scaly, raised encrusted scales on the legs
Area affected: Legs.
Causes: Knemidocoptes mutans - Mite burrowing under scales.
Transmission: Spread by direct contact with other birds. The mite spends its entire life cycle on the bird.
Diagnosis: Contact with other birds, bringing new birds in that are carriers, raised encrusted scales on legs..
Prevention: Good biosecurity.
Treatment: Vasaline (Petroleum Jelly) rubbed into the legs regularly for 10 days to suffocate the mite or legs dipped into surgical spirit once per week for 3 weeks. Do not pull off crusts. Scales on the legs can take up to a year to regrow and look normal again.
Risk to Human Health: None known.
Links to Articles:
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Moulting (Feather Loss)
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 Feathers get tatty over the course of a year, so it is perfectly normal for birds to replace them from time to time.
Chickens shed their feathers in late summer / early autumn but they will sometimes go through a partial moult at other times of the year too. You will see lots of feathers around their run when they are in moult and the birds will look scruffy. Some chickens can look almost oven ready! Growers will shed their feathers twice during the first 6 months of their life although this is a much more gradual process and visually, youngsters still carry lots of feathers.
Waterfowl lose their flight feathers in one go which is different to most species of bird. They keep their inner down feathers but will pluck these themselves to line nests. They moult at the time of year when they would normally be looking after their (flightless) young in the wild and escape predators by taking to the water rather than flying off during this time.
- Geese moult once per year - both goose and gander moult at the same time - when the youngsters are a few weeks old. It takes them 3 or 4 weeks to replace their feathers.
- Ducks moult twice per year. Ducks and drakes moult at different times to one another. The drake moults into very colourful plumage for the spring breeding season to attract a mate but moult again into more camoflage feathers for the summer to avoid being spotted so easily by predators.
Links to Articles: Chickens Moulting, Eclipse Plumage in Ducks.
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Partial Blindness / Missing the Mark Pecking
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Partial Blindness should be suspected if a chicken misses the mark when pecking. This can be caused by a trauma to an eye such as a scratch but will normally only affect the one eye. If the bird is missing the mark, the most common cause is a Vitamin A deficiency. Blood spots in eggs can sometimes increase with Vitamin A deficiency. Deficiency is unlikely to occur from improper diet (especially these days with formulated balanced feeds being available), but is more likely an underlying health problem that is causing absorbsion difficulties within the digestive system such as Worms, or Coccidiosis.
- Look for other signs and symptoms for the underlying problem and treat accordingly. To help with the Vitamin A deficiency, Cod Liver Oil, (2%) mixed into the normal food ration can help. Too much Vitamin A is toxic to chickens so don't go overboard.
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Blindness
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Poultry can get damage to the eye, conjunctivitis or even go completely blind for a number of different reasons:
- Crested birds such as the Poland can have feathers grow into the eye.
- Some types of Marek's disease can cause the eye to go grey and the bird becomes partially or completely blind.
- Ammonia levels caused by droppings left in the coop with insufficient ventillation can cause the cornea in the eye to become damaged. It will not usually recover, even if the conditions are changed. Ammonia is easy to smell, put your head inside the coop first thing in the morning and ensure you cannot smell it. Adequate ventillation and cleaning and ensuring the birds are not overcrowded will prevent this problem.
- Scratches and physical trauma to the eye..
- Respiratory infections in the upper respiratory tract - Sinusitis and Mycoplasma Gallisepticum can cause a secondary infection to effect the eye. Puss can 'stick' the eye lids together causing temporary blindness.
Antibiotic eye drops available from your vet are useful for infections
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Frostbite (to Cockerel's Comb)
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Frostbite or a frozen comb usually affects breeds of cockerels with larger combs. It causes the tips of the comb to turn black and in time, drop off. Fertility during the next season can also be affected.
Links to Articles:
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Don't forget - if in doubt - visit the Vet!
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Diseases & Disorders
